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| -rw-r--r-- | paper/safety-reset.bib | 1768 |
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diff --git a/notebooks/fig_out/freq_meas_trace_24h.pdf b/notebooks/fig_out/freq_meas_trace_24h.pdf Binary files differindex 880ecbd..ae9d79a 100644 --- a/notebooks/fig_out/freq_meas_trace_24h.pdf +++ b/notebooks/fig_out/freq_meas_trace_24h.pdf diff --git a/notebooks/fig_out/freq_meas_trace_2h_1.pdf b/notebooks/fig_out/freq_meas_trace_2h_1.pdf Binary files differindex 9d25020..9be1bc9 100644 --- a/notebooks/fig_out/freq_meas_trace_2h_1.pdf +++ b/notebooks/fig_out/freq_meas_trace_2h_1.pdf diff --git a/notebooks/fig_out/freq_meas_trace_2h_2.pdf b/notebooks/fig_out/freq_meas_trace_2h_2.pdf Binary files differindex 77143a7..7ac5438 100644 --- a/notebooks/fig_out/freq_meas_trace_2h_2.pdf +++ b/notebooks/fig_out/freq_meas_trace_2h_2.pdf diff --git a/paper/Makefile b/paper/Makefile index 1d417d4..a391dfb 100644 --- a/paper/Makefile +++ b/paper/Makefile @@ -14,17 +14,17 @@ VERSION_STRING := $(shell git describe --tags --long --dirty) all: ${main_tex}.pdf -%.pdf: %.tex safety-reset.bib version.tex +%.pdf: %.tex safety-reset-paper.bib version.tex pdflatex -shell-escape $< - biber $* + bibtex $* pdflatex -shell-escape $< .PHONY: once -once: safety-reset-paper.tex safety-reset.bib version.tex - biber safety-reset-paper +once: safety-reset-paper.tex safety-reset-paper.bib version.tex + bibtex safety-reset-paper pdflatex -shell-escape $< -version.tex: ${main_tex}.tex safety-reset.bib +version.tex: ${main_tex}.tex safety-reset-paper.bib echo "${VERSION_STRING}" > $@ resources/%.pdf: $(LAB_PATH)/%.ipynb diff --git a/paper/safety-reset-paper.tex b/paper/safety-reset-paper.tex index be7d40e..fe8097d 100644 --- a/paper/safety-reset-paper.tex +++ b/paper/safety-reset-paper.tex @@ -1,16 +1,6 @@ \documentclass[letterpaper,twocolumn,10pt]{article} \usepackage{usenix} -\usepackage[T1]{fontenc} -\usepackage[ - backend=biber, - style=numeric, - natbib=true, - url=false, - doi=true, - eprint=false - ]{biblatex} -\addbibresource{safety-reset.bib} \usepackage{amssymb,amsmath} \usepackage{eurosym} \usepackage{wasysym} @@ -35,8 +25,8 @@ % https://eepublicdownloads.entsoe.eu/clean-documents/pre2015/publications/entsoe/Operation_Handbook/Policy_1_Appendix%20_final.pdf \date{} -\title{Ripples in the Pond: Transmitting Information through Grid Frequency Modulation} -\author{Jan Sebastian Götte \and Liran Katzir \and Björn Scheuermann} +\title{\large\bf Ripples in the Pond:\\Transmitting Information through Grid Frequency Modulation} +\author{{\rm Jan Sebastian Götte}\\TU Darmstadt \and {\rm Liran Katzir}\\Tel Aviv University\and {\rm Björn Scheuermann}\\TU Darmstadt} %\institute{TU Darmstadt\\ Communication Networks Lab\\ \email{safetyreset@jaseg.de} %\and Tel Aviv University\\ Faculty of Engineering\\ \email{lirankat@tau.ac.il} %\and TU Darmstadt\\ Communication Networks Lab\\ \email{scheuermann@informatik.hu-berlin.de}} @@ -45,29 +35,25 @@ %things'' \and Cyber-physical systems \and Hardware security \and Network Security \and Energy systems \and Signal theory} \begin{abstract} - Previous work has explored the scenario of an attacker compromising a large number of consumer devices, and - modulating the power of these devices to cause large load swings at particular resonant frequencies of the - electrical grid's control systems that ultimately cause a large-scale outage~\cite{ctap+11,wu01}. Previous work has - focused on attacks using smart meters with integrated remote disconnect switches as first proposed - in~\cite{anderson01}, but the same attack scenario also applies to large IoT devices such as IoT-equipped air - conditioners or central heating systems. - - Prior work on mitigation of this attack scenario includes generic firmware hardening techniquies % FIXME citation - and reducing the susceptibility of the electrical grid towards these resonant oscillation modes~\cite{entsoe01}. - In this paper, we will complement these mitigation efforts by considering the recovery process after a successful - attack. To transmission system operators (TSOs), the major challenge after such a Smart Meter-triggered outage is - that the attacker will likely persist through the outage, and compromised Smart Meters will resume malicious - activity after their power is restored. In the event of such an attack, TSOs would need a way to remotely put these - compromised devices into a \emph{safe} mode of operation. For this purpose, we propose a remote-controllable - \emph{Safety reest} that is designed to remain operational even during a large-scale attack. - - Given that public telecommunications networks including the internet, cellular networks, and LoRa base stations may - also be disrupted during a blackout, the challenging aspect of this \emph{Safety Reset} is the communication channel - between TSO and the smart meter. For this purpose, in this paper we propose a simple yet effective communication - channel based on modulating grid frequency by modulating the power of a connected load or generator. Our proposed - communciation channel (1) requires minimal infrastructure, (2) has a reach spanning the entire power grid and (3) is - fully independent of other telecommunication networks and functions even under severe disruption of the grid. The - resulting safety reset can be applied to any grid-connected device including smart meters and IoT devices. + The dependence of the electrical grid on networked control systems is steadily rising. While utilities are defending + their side of the grid effectively through rigorous IT security measures such as physically separated control + networks, the increasing number of networked devices on the consumer side such as smart meters or large + IoT-connected appliances such as air conditioners are much harder to secure due to their heterogeneity. We consider + a crisis scenario in which an attacker compromises a large number of consumer-side devices and modulates their + electrical to destabilize the grid and cause an electrical outage~\cite{ctap+11,wu01,zlmz+21,kgma21,smp18,hcb19}. + + In this paper propose a broadcast channel based on the modulation of grid frequency through which utility operators + can issue commands to devices at the consumer premises both during an attack for mitigation and in its wake to aid + recovery. Our proposed grid frequency modulation (GFM) channel is independent of other telecommunication networks. + It is resilient towards localized blackouts and it is operational immediately as soon as power is restored. + + Based on our GFM broadcast channel we propose a ``safety reset'' system to mitigate an ongoing attack by disabling a + device's network interfaces and restting its control functions. It can also be used in the wake of an attack to aid + recovery by shutting down non-essential loads to reduce strain on the grid. + + To validate our proposed design, we conducted simulations based on measured grid frequency behavior. Based on these + simulations, we performed an experimental validation on simulated grid voltage waveforms using a smart meter + equipped with a prototype safety reset system based on an inexpensive commodity microcontroller. \end{abstract} \section{Introduction} @@ -79,12 +65,15 @@ their interactions have not yet received much attention. In this paper, we consider the previously proposed scenario where a large number of compromised consumer devices is used alone or in conjunction with an attack on the grid's central SCADA systems to destabilize the grid by rapidly modulating -the total connected load~\cite{ctap+11,wu01}. Previous work considered compromised smart meters with integrated remote -disconnect switches as likely candidates for such an attack, but the same attack can also be performed using compromised -IoT devices. Such attacks are hard to mitigate, and existing literature focuses on hardening device firmware to prevent +the total connected load~\cite{ctap+11,wu01,zlmz+21,kgma21,smp18,hcb19}. Several devices have been identified as likely +targets for such an attack including smart meters with integrated remote disconnect switches~\cite{ctap+11,anderson01}, +large IoT-connected appliances~\cite{smp18,hcb19,chl20,olkd20} and electric vehicle +chargers~\cite{kgma21,zlmz+21,olkd20}. Such attacks are hard to mitigate, and existing literature focuses on hardening +grid control systems~\cite{kgma21,lzlw+20,lam21,zlmz+21} and device firmware\cite{mpdm+10,smp18,zb20,yomu+20} to prevent compromise. Despite the infeasibility of perfect firmware security, there is little research on \emph{post-compromise} -mitigation approaches. A core issue with post-attack mitigation is that the devices normal network connection may not -work due to the attack and as such an out-of-band communication channel is necessary. +mitigation approaches. A core issue with post-attack mitigation is that network connections such as internet and +cellular networks between the utility and devices on consumer premises may not work due to the attack. Thus, mitigation +strategies that involve devices on the consumer premises will need an out-of-band communication channel. We propose a \emph{safety reset} controller that is controlled through a novel, resilient, grid-wide powerline communication technique. Our safety reset controller can be fitted into any Smart Meter or IoT device. Its purpose is to @@ -92,14 +81,31 @@ await an out-of-band command to put the device into a safe state (e.g. \emph{rel interrupts attacker control over the device. The safety reset controller is separated from the system's main application controller and does not have any conventional network connections to reduce attack surface and cost. -We propose a resilient grid-wide broadcast channel based on modulating grid frequency. This channel can be operated by -transmission system operators (TSOs) even during black-start recovery procedures and in this situation bridges the gap -between the TSO's private network and the consumer devices. To demonstrate our proposed channel, we have implemented a -system that transmits error-corrected and cryptographically secured commands. - -Our approach differs from traditional Powerline Communication (PLC) systems in that it reaches every device within one -synchronous area as the signal is embedded into the fundamental grid frequency. Traditional PLC uses a superimposed -voltage, which is quickly attenuated across long distances. +To facilitate resilient communication between the grid operator and the safety reset controller, we propose a grid-wide +broadcast channel based on grid frequency modulation (GFM). This channel can be operated by transmission system +operators (TSOs) even during black-start recovery procedures and it bridges the gap between the TSO's private control +network and consumer devices that can not economically be equipped with other resilient communication techniques such as +satellite transceivers. To demonstrate our proposed channel, we have implemented a system that transmits error-corrected +and cryptographically secured commands through an emulated grid frequency-modulated voltage waveform to an off-the-shelf +smart meter equipped with a prototype safety reset controller based on a small off-the-shelf microcontroller. + +The frequency behavior of the electrical grid can be analyzed by examining the grid as a large collection of mechanical +oscillators coupled through the grid via the electromotive force~\cite{rogers01,wcje+12}. The generators and motors that +are electromagnetically coupled through the grid's transmission lines and transformers run synchronously with each +other, with only minor localized variations in their rotation angle. The dynamic behavior of grid frequency is a direct +product of this electromechanical coupling: With increasing load, frequency drops because shafts move slower under +higher torque, and consequentially with decreasing load frequency rises. Industrial control systems keep frequency close +to its nominal value over time spans of minutes or hours, but at shorter time frames the combined inertia of all +grid-connected generators and motors is what regulates frequency. + +Grid frequency modulation works by quickly modulating the power of a large, grid-connected load or generator. When this +modulation is at low amplitude and high frequency, it is below the thresholds set for the grid's automated control +systems and monitoring systems and it will directly affect frequency according to the grid's inertia. GFM differs from +traditional Powerline Communication (PLC) systems in that it reaches every device within one synchronous area as the +signal is embedded into the fundamental grid frequency. Traditional PLC uses a superimposed voltage, which is quickly +attenuated across long distances. Practically speaking, using GFM a single large transmitter can cover an entire +synchronous area, while in traditional PLC hundreds or thousands of smaller transmitters would be necessary. Unlike +traditional PLC, any large industrial load that allows for fast computer control can act as a GFM transmitter. \begin{figure} \centering @@ -109,17 +115,18 @@ voltage, which is quickly attenuated across long distances. \label{fig_intro_flowchart} \end{figure} -Figure~\ref{fig_intro_flowchart} shows an overview of our concept. Two scenarios for its application are before or -during a cyberattack, to stop an attack on the electrical grid in its tracks, and after an attack while power is being -restored to prevent a repeated attack. In both scenarios, our concept is independent of telecommunication networks (such -as the internet or cellular networks) as well as broadcast systems (such as cable television or terrestrial broadcast -radio) while requiring only inexpensive signal processing hardware and no external antennas (such as are needed for -satellite communication). A grid frequency-based system can function as long as power is still available, or as soon as -power is restored after the attack. One powerful function this allows is ``flushing out`` an attacker from compromised -smart meters after an attack, before restoring smart meter internet connectivity. +Figure~\ref{fig_intro_flowchart} shows an overview of our concept, where a large aluminium smelter has been temporarily +re-purposed as a GFM transmitter. Two scenarios for its application are before or during a cyberattack, to stop an +attack on the electrical grid in its tracks, and after an attack while power is being restored to prevent a repeated +attack. In both scenarios, our concept is independent of telecommunication networks (such as the internet or cellular +networks) as well as broadcast systems (such as cable television or terrestrial broadcast radio) while requiring only +inexpensive signal processing hardware and no external antennas (such as are needed for satellite communication). A grid +frequency-based system can function as long as power is still available, or as soon as power is restored after the +attack. One powerful function this allows is ``flushing out`` an attacker from compromised smart meters after an attack, +before restoring smart meter internet connectivity. Using simulations we have determined that control of a $\SI{25}{\mega\watt}$ load such as a large aluminium smelter, -load bank or photovoltaic farm would allow for the transmission of a crytographically secured \emph{reset} signal within +load bank or photovoltaic farm would allow for the transmission of a crytographically secured safety reset signal within $15$ minutes. We have designed and constructed a proof-of-concept prototype receiver that demonstrates the feasibility of decoding such signals on a resource-constrained microcontroller. @@ -172,9 +179,10 @@ restore the grid to its normal state. \subsection{Contents} Starting from a high level architecture, we have carried out simulations of our concept's performance under real-world -conditions. Based on these simulations we implemented an end-to-end prototype of our proposed safety reset controller as -part of a realistic smart meter demonstrator. Finally, we experimentally validated our results and we will conclude with -an outline of further steps towards a practical implementation. +conditions using measured grid frequency data. Based on these simulations we implemented an end-to-end prototype of our +proposed safety reset controller as part of a realistic smart meter demonstrator. Finally, we experimentally validated +our results based on a simulated mains voltage signal and we will conclude with an outline of further steps towards a +practical implementation. This work contains the following contributions: \begin{enumerate}[topsep=4pt] @@ -494,14 +502,14 @@ from $\SI{0.2}{\hertz}$ to $\SI{2}{\hertz}$. \begin{figure} \centering - \includegraphics[width=0.4\textwidth]{../notebooks/fig_out/dsss_gold_nbits_overview} + \includegraphics[width=0.45\textwidth]{../notebooks/fig_out/dsss_gold_nbits_overview} \caption{Symbol Error Rate as a function of modulation amplitude for Gold sequences of several lengths.} \label{fig_ser_nbits} \end{figure} \begin{figure} \centering - \hspace*{-1cm}\includegraphics[width=1.2\textwidth]{../notebooks/fig_out/dsss_thf_amplitude_5678} + \hspace*{-1cm}\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{../notebooks/fig_out/dsss_thf_amplitude_5678} \caption{SER vs.\ Amplitude and detection threshold. Detection threshold is set as a factor of background noise level.} \label{fig_ser_thf} @@ -509,7 +517,7 @@ from $\SI{0.2}{\hertz}$ to $\SI{2}{\hertz}$. \begin{figure} \centering - \hspace*{-1cm}\includegraphics[width=1.2\textwidth]{../notebooks/fig_out/chip_duration_sensitivity_6} + \hspace*{-1cm}\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{../notebooks/fig_out/chip_duration_sensitivity_6} \vspace*{-1cm} \caption{SER vs.\ DSSS chip duration.} \label{fig_ser_chip} @@ -542,7 +550,7 @@ need for computationally expensive public key cryptography inside the smart mete \begin{figure} \centering - \includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{prototype.jpg} + \includegraphics[width=0.45\textwidth]{prototype.jpg} \caption{The completed prototype setup. The board on the left is the safety reset microcontroller. It is connected to the smart meter in the middle through an adapter board. The top left contains a USB hub with debug interfaces to the reset microcontroller. The cables on the bottom left are the debug USB cable and the \SI{3.5}{\milli\meter} @@ -571,7 +579,7 @@ the meter's display after boot-up. \begin{figure} \centering - \includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{prototype_schema} + \includegraphics[width=0.45\textwidth]{prototype_schema} \caption{The signal processing chain of our demonstrator.} \label{fig_demo_sig_schema} \end{figure} @@ -652,7 +660,8 @@ commercially viable. Source code and EDA designs are available at the public repository listed at the end of this document. -\printbibliography[heading=bibintoc] +\bibliographystyle{plain} +\bibliography{\jobname} \center{ \center{This is version \texttt{\input{version.tex}\unskip} of this paper, generated on \today. The git repository diff --git a/paper/safety-reset.bib b/paper/safety-reset.bib deleted file mode 100644 index d448933..0000000 --- a/paper/safety-reset.bib +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1768 +0,0 @@ -@comment{x-kbibtex-encoding=utf-8} - -@article{pinto01, - address = {New York, NY, USA}, - articleno = {130}, - author = {Sandro Pinto and Nuno Santos}, - doi = {10.1145/3291047}, - issn = {0360-0300}, - issue_date = {February 2019}, - journal = {ACM Comput. Surv.}, - keywords = {security; TEE; virtualization; Arm; TrustZone; survey}, - month = jan, - number = {6}, - numpages = {36}, - publisher = {Association for Computing Machinery}, - title = {Demystifying Arm TrustZone: A Comprehensive Survey}, - url = {https://doi.org/10.1145/3291047}, - volume = {51}, - year = {2019} -} - -@inproceedings{kanonov01, - author = {Uri Kanonov and Avishai Wool}, - booktitle = {Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Security and Privacy in Smartphones and Mobile Devices}, - pages = {3–12}, - title = {Secure containers in Android: the Samsung KNOX case study}, - year = {2016} -} - -@inproceedings{rosenberg01, - author = {Dan Rosenberg}, - booktitle = {Black Hat conference}, - title = {Qsee trustzone kernel integer over flow vulnerability}, - year = {2014} -} - -@online{bnetza1, - author = {{German Government Bundesnetzagentur}}, - publisher = {Bundesnetzagentur}, - title = {Smart Meter}, - url = {https://web.archive.org/web/20190919100204/https://www.bundesnetzagentur.de/DE/Sachgebiete/ElektrizitaetundGas/Verbraucher/NetzanschlussUndMessung/SmartMetering/SmartMeter_node.html}, - urldate = {2019-09-19}, - year = {2019} -} - -@online{bmwi1, - author = {{Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik} and {Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie}}, - month = jan, - publisher = {Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie}, - title = {Standardisierungsstrategie zur sektorübergreifenden Digitalisierung nach dem Gesetz zur Digitalisierung der Energiewende}, - url = {https://web.archive.org/web/20190919100713/https://www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/DE/Downloads/S-T/standardisierungsstrategie.pdf}, - urldate = {2019-09-19}, - year = {2019} -} - -@unpublished{bsi-tr-03109, - author = {{Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik}}, - booktitle = {Technische Richtlinie BSI TR-03109}, - month = nov, - organization = {{Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik}}, - title = {Technische Richtlinie BSI TR-03109}, - url = {https://web.archive.org/web/20190919102010/https://www.bsi.bund.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/BSI/Publikationen/TechnischeRichtlinien/TR03109/TR03109.pdf; jsessionid=BD197BE4CB44C76EE7945640B8703844.2_cid351?__blob=publicationFile&v=3}, - urldate = {2019-09-19}, - year = {2015} -} - -@unpublished{bsi-tr-03109-1, - author = {{Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik}}, - booktitle = {Technische Richtlinie BSI TR-03109}, - month = jan, - number = {v1.0.1}, - organization = {{Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik}}, - title = {TR-03109-1: Anforderungen an die Interoperabilität der Kommunikationseinheit eines intelligenten Messsystems}, - url = {https://web.archive.org/web/20190919102217/https://www.bsi.bund.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/BSI/Publikationen/TechnischeRichtlinien/TR03109/TR03109-1.pdf; jsessionid=BD197BE4CB44C76EE7945640B8703844.2_cid351?__blob=publicationFile&v=3}, - urldate = {2019-09-19}, - year = {2019} -} - -@unpublished{bsi-tr-03109-6, - author = {{Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik}}, - booktitle = {Technische Richtlinie BSI TR-03109}, - month = nov, - number = {v1.0}, - organization = {{Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik}}, - title = {TR-03109-6: Smart Meter Gateway Administration}, - url = {https://web.archive.org/web/20190919102651/https://www.bsi.bund.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/BSI/Publikationen/TechnischeRichtlinien/TR03109/TR-03109-6-Smart_Meter_Gateway_Administration.pdf; jsessionid=BD197BE4CB44C76EE7945640B8703844.2_cid351?__blob=publicationFile&v=4}, - urldate = {2019-09-19}, - year = {2015} -} - -@unpublished{bsi-tr-03109-4, - author = {{Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik}}, - booktitle = {Technische Richtlinie BSI TR-03109}, - month = aug, - number = {v1.2.1}, - organization = {{Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik}}, - title = {TR-03109-4: Public Key Infrastruktur für Smart Meter Gateways}, - url = {https://web.archive.org/web/20190919102649/https://www.bsi.bund.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/BSI/Publikationen/TechnischeRichtlinien/TR03109/TR-03109-4_PKI.pdf; jsessionid=BD197BE4CB44C76EE7945640B8703844.2_cid351?__blob=publicationFile&v=3}, - urldate = {2019-09-19}, - year = {2017} -} - -@unpublished{bsi-tr-03109-2, - author = {{Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik}}, - booktitle = {Technische Richtlinie BSI TR-03109}, - month = dec, - number = {v1.1}, - organization = {{Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik}}, - title = {TR-03109-2: Smart Meter Gateway - Anforderungen an die Funktionalität und Interoperabilität des Sicherheitsmoduls}, - url = {https://web.archive.org/web/20190919102644/https://www.bsi.bund.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/BSI/Publikationen/TechnischeRichtlinien/TR03109/TR-03109-2-Anforderungen_an_die_Funktionalitaet.pdf; 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Grebe and J. Kabouris and S. López Barba and W. Sattinger and W. Winter}, - doi = {10.1109/PES.2010.5589932}, - journaltitle = {IEEE PES General Meeting}, - month = aug, - publisher = {IEEE}, - title = {Low Frequency Oscillations in the Interconnected System of Continental Europe}, - year = {2010} -} - -@article{mcdaniel01, - author = {McDaniel Patrick and McLaughlin Stephen}, - journaltitle = {Secure Systems}, - month = may, - organization = {IEEE}, - title = {Security and Privacy Challenges in the Smart Grid}, - year = {2009} -} - -@article{schafer01, - author = {Benjamin Schäfer and Moritz Matthiae and Marc Timme and Dirk Witthaut}, - doi = {10.1088/1367-2630/17/1/015002}, - journaltitle = {New Journal of Physics}, - month = jan, - publisher = {IOP/DPG}, - title = {Decentral Smart Grid Control}, - volume = {17}, - year = {2015} -} - -@article{kosut01, - author = {Oliver Kosut and Liyan Jia and Robert J. Thomas and Lang Tong}, - journaltitle = {IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid}, - month = nov, - number = {4}, - pages = {645–658}, - publisher = {IEEE}, - title = {Malicious Data Attacks on the Smart Grid}, - volume = {2}, - year = {2011} -} - -@online{schneier01, - author = {Bruce Schneier}, - journaltitle = {Crypto-Gram May 15 2002}, - month = may, - publisher = {Counterplane Internet Security}, - title = {Secrecy, Security, and Obscurity}, - url = {https://www.schneier.com/crypto-gram/archives/2002/0515.html}, - year = {2002} -} - -@article{kim01, - author = {Jinsub Kim and Lang Tong}, - doi = {10.1109/JSAC.2013.130712}, - journaltitle = {IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications}, - month = jul, - number = {7}, - publisher = {IEEE}, - title = {On Topology Attack of a Smart Grid: Undetectable Attacks and Countermeasures}, - volume = {31}, - year = {2013} -} - -@inproceedings{fraunholz01, - author = {Daniel Fraunholz and Simon {Duque Anton} and Hans Dieter Schotten}, - journaltitle = {2017 25th International Conference on Software, Telecommunications and Computer Networks (SoftCOM)}, - month = nov, - publisher = {IEEE}, - title = {Introducing GAMfIS: A Generic Attacker Model for Information Security}, - url = {https://doi.org/10.23919/SOFTCOM.2017.8115550}, - year = {2017} -} - -@online{nytimes01, - author = {Andrew E. Kramer}, - date = {Dec 30 2016}, - journaltitle = {The New York Times New York edition, Section A, Page 1}, - publisher = {The New York Times}, - title = {How the Kremlin Recruited an Army of Specialists for Cyberwar}, - year = {2016} -} - -@article{perez01, - author = {Noelia Uribe-Pérez and Luis Hernández and David de la Vega and Itziar Angulo}, - comment = {Questionable publisher but seems good-quality, well-researched. Maybe not published elsewhere since it's just an industry/legislative review article?}, - doi = {10.3390/app6030068}, - journaltitle = {Applied Sciences}, - month = feb, - number = {3}, - organization = {MDPI}, - pages = {68}, - title = {State of the Art and Trends Review of Smart Metering in Electricity Grids}, - volume = {6}, - x-color = {#cc3300}, - year = {2016} -} - -@article{urtasun01, - author = {Andoni Urtasun and Pablo Sanchis and David Barricarte and Luis Marroyo}, - comment = {has lots of self-citations by urtasun}, - journaltitle = {Renewable Energy}, - month = jan, - pages = {325–336}, - publisher = {Elsevier}, - title = {Energy management strategy for a battery-diesel stand-alone system with distributed PV generation based on grid frequency modulation}, - url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2013.12.020}, - volume = {66}, - year = {2014} -} - -@article{dzung01, - author = {Dacfey Dzung and Inigo Berganza and Alberto Sendin}, - date = {2011}, - doi = {10.1109/ISPLC.2011.5764444}, - journaltitle = {2011 IEEE International Symposium on Power Line Communications and Its Applications}, - title = {Evolution of powerline communications for smart distribution: From Ripple Control to OFDM}, - url = {https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Inigo_Berganza/publication/224236306_Evolution_of_powerline_communications_for_smart_distribution_From_ripple_control_to_OFDM/links/5c658800299bf1d14cc74cbd/Evolution-of-powerline-communications-for-smart-distribution-From-ripple-control-to-OFDM.pdf} -} - -@online{hovi01, - author = {Jochen Fritz and Alexander Hovi}, - date = {2020}, - journaltitle = {Rundsteuertechnik: Übertragung von Steuersignalen über das Energieversorgungsnetz}, - title = {Transkommando-System}, - url = {http://www.rundsteuerung.de/entwicklung/transkommando.html} -} - -@book{kundur01, - address = {New York, NY u.a.}, - author = {Prabha Kundur}, - isbn = {007035958X}, - keywords = {Elektrizitätsversorgungsnetz}, - language = {eng}, - publisher = {McGraw-Hill}, - series = {The EPRI power system engineering series}, - title = {Power system stability and control}, - year = {1994} -} - -@book{goiser01, - author = {Alois M. J. Goiser}, - date = {1998}, - isbn = {3-211-83080-4}, - publisher = {Springer}, - title = {Handbuch der Spread-Spectrum Technik} -} - -@unpublished{lamport02, - author = {Leslie Lamport}, - date = {19}, - institution = {Technical Report CSL-98, SRI International}, - title = {Constructing digital signatures from a one-way function}, - year = {1979} -} - -@inproceedings{buchmann01, - author = {Johannes Buchmann and Erik Dahmen and Sarah Ereth and Andreas Hülsing and Markus Rückert}, - booktitle = {International Conference on Cryptology in Africa}, - date = {2011}, - organization = {Springer}, - pages = {363–378}, - title = {On the security of the Winternitz one-time signature scheme}, - year = {2011} -} - -@inproceedings{merkle01, - author = {Ralph C Merkle}, - booktitle = {Conference on the Theory and Application of Cryptology}, - organization = {Springer}, - pages = {218–238}, - title = {A certified digital signature}, - year = {1989} -} - -@inbook{dods01, - author = {Chris Dods and Nigel P Smart and Martijn Stam}, - booktitle = {Post-Quantum Cryptography}, - date = {2009}, - doi = {10.1007/978-3-540-88702-7_3}, - editor = {D. J. Bernstein and J. Buchmann and E. Dahmen}, - isbn = {978-3-540-88701-0}, - organization = {Springer}, - pages = {96–115}, - publisher = {Springer}, - title = {Hash based digital signature schemes}, - year = {2005} -} - -@unpublished{gasior01, - author = {M Gasior and JL Gonzalez}, - institution = {CERN-AB-Note-2004-021}, - title = {Improving FFT frequency measurement resolution by parabolic and gaussian interpolation}, - year = {2004} -} - -@inproceedings{giudice01, - author = {Antonio {Del Giudice} and Giorgio Graditi and Antonio Pietrosanto and Vincenzo Paciello}, - booktitle = {2015 IEEE International Workshop on Measurements \& Networking (M\&N)}, - organization = {IEEE}, - pages = {1–6}, - title = {Power quality in smart distribution grids}, - year = {2015} -} - -@article{virtanen01, - adsurl = {https://rdcu.be/b08Wh}, - author = {Pauli {Virtanen} and Ralf {Gommers} and Travis E. {Oliphant} and Matt {Haberland} and Tyler {Reddy} and David {Cournapeau} and Evgeni {Burovski} and Pearu {Peterson} and Warren {Weckesser} and Jonathan {Bright} and Stéfan J. {van der Walt} and Matthew {Brett} and Joshua {Wilson} and K. {Jarrod Millman} and Nikolay {Mayorov} and Andrew R.~J. {Nelson} and Eric {Jones} and Robert {Kern} and Eric {Larson} and CJ {Carey} and İlhan {Polat} and Yu {Feng} and Eric W. {Moore} and Jake {Vand erPlas} and Denis {Laxalde} and Josef {Perktold} and Robert {Cimrman} and Ian {Henriksen} and E.~A. {Quintero} and Charles R {Harris} and Anne M. {Archibald} and Antônio H. {Ribeiro} and Fabian {Pedregosa} and Paul {van Mulbregt} and SciPy 1. 0 {Contributors}}, - doi = {10.1038/s41592-019-0686-2}, - journal = {Nature Methods}, - pages = {261–272}, - title = {SciPy 1.0: Fundamental Algorithms for Scientific Computing in Python}, - volume = {17}, - year = {2020} -} - -@article{derviskadic01, - author = {Asja Derviškadić and Paolo Romano and Mario Paolone}, - journal = {IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement}, - number = {3}, - pages = {547–558}, - publisher = {IEEE}, - title = {Iterative-interpolated DFT for synchrophasor estimation: A single algorithm for P-and M-class compliant PMUs}, - volume = {67}, - year = {2017} -} - -@article{narduzzi01, - author = {Claudio Narduzzi and Matteo Bertocco and Guglielmo Frigo and Giada Giorgi}, - journal = {IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement}, - number = {8}, - pages = {1825–1835}, - publisher = {IEEE}, - title = {Fast-TFM—Multifrequency phasor measurement for distribution networks}, - volume = {67}, - year = {2018} -} - -@article{cheshire01, - author = {Stuart Cheshire and Mary Baker}, - bibsource = {dblp computer science bibliography, https://dblp.org}, - biburl = {https://dblp.org/rec/journals/ton/CheshireB99.bib}, - doi = {10.1109/90.769765}, - journal = {{IEEE/ACM} Trans. Netw.}, - number = {2}, - pages = {159–172}, - title = {Consistent overhead Byte stuffing}, - volume = {7}, - year = {1999} -} - -@inproceedings{kluyver01, - author = {Thomas Kluyver and Benjamin Ragan{-}Kelley and Fernando Pérez and Brian E. Granger and Matthias Bussonnier and Jonathan Frederic and Kyle Kelley and Jessica B. Hamrick and Jason Grout and Sylvain Corlay and Paul Ivanov and Damián Avila and Safia Abdalla and Carol Willing and et al.}, - bibsource = {dblp computer science bibliography, https://dblp.org}, - biburl = {https://dblp.org/rec/conf/elpub/KluyverRPGBFKHG16.bib}, - booktitle = {Positioning and Power in Academic Publishing: Players, Agents and Agendas, 20th International Conference on Electronic Publishing, Göttingen, Germany, June 7-9, 2016}, - doi = {10.3233/978-1-61499-649-1-87}, - editor = {Fernando Loizides and Birgit Schmidt}, - pages = {87–90}, - publisher = {{IOS} Press}, - title = {Jupyter Notebooks - a publishing format for reproducible computational workflows}, - year = {2016} -} - -@article{perrin01, - author = {Trevor Perrin}, - journal = {URL http://noiseprotocol. org/noise. pdf}, - title = {The Noise protocol framework, 2015}, - year = {2016} -} - -@thesis{gasior02, - author = {Marek Gasior}, - title = {Improving frequency resolution of discrete spectra: algorithms of three-node interpolation}, - url = {https://cds.cern.ch/record/1346070}, - year = {2006} -} - -@unpublished{entsoe02, - author = {UCTE/ENTSO-E}, - chapter = {Policy 1: Load-Frequency Control-Final Version (approved by SC on 19 March 2009)}, - date = {2009}, - publisher = {UCTE/ENTSO-E}, - title = {Operation Handbook}, - year = {2009} -} - -@unpublished{entsoe03, - author = {{ENTSO-E Working Group Incident Classification Scale Under System Operations Committee}}, - date = {2014}, - institution = {ENTSO-E}, - title = {Incidents Classification Methodology} -} - -@unpublished{entsoe04, - author = {UCTE/ENTSO-E}, - chapter = {Appendix 1: Load-Frequency Control and Performance}, - date = {2004}, - publisher = {UCTE/ENTSO-E}, - title = {Operation Handbook}, - year = {2009} -} - -@inbook{eisma01, - author = {David Eisma and Pretesh Patel}, - booktitle = {Essential Readings in Light Metals, Volume 2, Aluminum Reduction Technology}, - date = {2016}, - editor = {Geoff Bearne and Marc Dupuis and Gary Tarcy}, - pages = {683–688}, - title = {Challenges in Power Modulation} -} - -@inbook{depree01, - author = {N. Depree and R. Düssel and P. Patel and T. Reek}, - booktitle = {Light Metals 2016}, - date = {2016}, - doi = {10.1007/978-3-319-48251-4_96}, - editor = {E. Williams}, - pages = {571–576}, - title = {The Virtual Battery — Operating an Aluminium Smelter with Flexible Energy Input} -} - -@inproceedings{duessel01, - author = {Roman Düssel}, - booktitle = {Proceedings of the 36th International ICSOBA Conference}, - date = {2018}, - journaltitle = {Proceedings of the 36th International ICSOBA Conference}, - title = {Paradigm Shift in the Indication of a Stable Cell during Power Modulation} -} - -@unpublished{ec01, - author = {Christian Egenhofer and Felice Simonelli and Andrea Renda and Antonella Zarra and William Schmitt and Aurélie Faure and Eleaonor Drabik and Vasileios Rizos and Thomas Hähl and Michèle Koper and Angelica Afanador and Marian Bons}, - date = {2018}, - doi = {10.2873/937326}, - institution = {European Commission, Directorate-General for Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs}, - title = {Composition and Drivers of Energy Prices and Costs: Case Studies in Selected Energy Intensive Industries – 2018}, - url = {https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/424dac0a-ec77-11e8-b690-01aa75ed71a1/language-en} -} - -@unpublished{oye01, - author = {Harald A. Øye}, - date = {2012}, - eventtitle = {27th International Aluminium Conference Metal Bulletin Events}, - institution = {27th International Aluminium Conference Metal Bulletin Events}, - title = {Power Failure, Temporary Pot Shut-Down, Restart and Repair} -} - -@unpublished{ayoub01, - author = {Mohammed W. Ayoub and Francis V. P. Robinson}, - date = {2013}, - doi = {10.1109/IEEEGCC.2013.6705851}, - institution = {{Dubai Aluminium}}, - title = {A comparative study between diode and thyristor based AC to DC converters for aluminium smelting process}, - url = {https://purehost.bath.ac.uk/ws/files/134381670/a_comparative_study_between_diode_and_thyristor_based_AC_to_DC_converters_for_aluminium_smelting_process.pdf} -} - -@unpublished{wright01, - author = {Paul S. Wright}, - date = {2019}, - doi = {10.5281/zenodo.3559798}, - institution = {UK National Physical Laboratory}, - title = {Library of ROCOF Test Waveforms – Pseudo Code, V1.0, May 2019.} -} - -@unpublished{hp01, - date = {1997}, - institution = {Hewlett Packard}, - title = {Application Note 200-2: Fundamentals of Quartz Oscillators} -} - -@online{netze01, - author = {Adrian Cramer}, - date = {2015}, - organization = {{NETZE Bad Langensalza GmbH}}, - title = {Bedienhandbuch "Smart Meter"}, - url = {https://www.nbl-badlangensalza.de/fileadmin/Netze/Dokumente/Benutzerhandbuch_NBL-Smart_Meter_V.1.0_.pdf} -} - -@book{steinbach01, - date = {2018}, - editor = {Armin Steinbach and Michael Weise}, - isbn = {9783110555882}, - publisher = {De Gruyter}, - title = {MsbG : Kommentar zum Messstellenbetriebsgesetz} -} - -@online{bmwe01, - date = {2019}, - institution = {Bundesministeriums für Wirtschaft und Energie}, - title = {Gutachten Digitalisierung der Energiewende}, - url = {https://www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/DE/Publikationen/Studien/digitalisierung-der-energiewende-thema-1.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=4} -} - -@unpublished{easymeter01, - author = {{EasyMeter GmbH}}, - date = {2020}, - title = {Datenblatt Moderne Messeinrichtung Q3A Drehstromzähler} -} - -@unpublished{honeywell01, - author = {{Honeywell Smart Energy}}, - date = {2017}, - title = {Datasheet Honeywell REX2 smart meter}, - url = {https://www.elstersolutions.com/assets/products/products_elster_files/SEADSNAEN001017REX2.pdf} -} - -@online{ifixit01, - author = {Miro Djuric}, - date = {2011}, - organization = {iFixit}, - title = {Elster REX2 Smart Meter Teardown}, - url = {https://www.ifixit.com/News/14306/elster-rex2-smart-meter-teardown}, - urldate = {2020-05-06} -} - -@unpublished{ec02, - author = {Frédéric Tounquet and Clément Alaton}, - date = {2019}, - institution = {European Commission, Directorate-General for Energy, Directorate B - Internal Energy Market}, - title = {Benchmarking smart meteringdeployment in the EU-28}, - type = {resreport} -} - -@online{destatis01, - date = {2020-03-06}, - editor = {Statistisches Bundesamt DeStatis}, - title = {Erzeugung - Bilanz - Monatsbericht über die Elektrizitätsversorgung}, - url = {https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Branchen-Unternehmen/Energie/Erzeugung/Tabellen/bilanz-elektrizitaetsversorgung.html}, - urldate = {2020-05-07} -} - -@book{nelles01, - author = {Dieter Nelles and Christian Tuttas}, - date = {1998}, - doi = {10.1007/978-3-663-09902-4}, - isbn = {978-3-663-09902-4}, - title = {Elektrische Energietechnik}, - year = {1998} -} - -@book{crastan01, - author = {Valentin Crastan}, - date = {2015}, - doi = {10.1007/978-3-662-45985-0}, - title = {Elektrische Energieversorgung 1}, - year = {2015} -} - -@book{crastan03, - author = {Valentin Crastan}, - date = {2012}, - doi = {10.1007/978-3-642-20100-4}, - isbn = {978-3-642-20099-1}, - title = {Elektrische Energieversorgung 3} -} - -@unpublished{simon01, - date = {1997}, - doi = {10.1007/978-3-322-85061-4}, - editor = {Liviu Constantinescu-Simon}, - title = {Handbuch Elektrische Energietechnik}, - year = {1997} -} - -@online{kamstrup01, - author = {{Kamstrup A/S}}, - title = {STS prepayment meter}, - url = {https://www.kamstrup.com/en-en/electricity-solutions/smart-electricity-meters/sts-prepayment-meter}, - urldate = {2020-05-11} -} - -@online{itron01, - author = {{Itron Inc}}, - date = {2012}, - title = {Benutzerhandbuch Smart Meter EM 214}, - url = {https://www.ewh.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Stromnetz/Zaehlerstaende/Produktbeschreibung_ITRON_EM214.pdf}, - urldate = {2020-05-11} -} - -@online{hager01, - author = {{Hager Group}}, - date = {2017}, - title = {Hager Smart Meter EHZ363 Betriebsanleitung}, - url = {https://bnnetze.de/downloads/kunden/netzkunden/messstellenbetrieb-und-messung/funktionalitaet/hager-ehz363-betriebsanleitung.pdf}, - urldate = {2020-05-11} -} - -@unpublished{vseaes01, - date = {2010}, - institution = {{Verband Schweizerischer Elektrizitätsunternehmen VSE}}, - title = {Branchenempfehlung Strommarkt Schweiz Handbuch Smart Metering CH}, - url = {https://web.archive.org/web/20130418034458if_/http://www.strom.ch:80/uploads/media/HBSM-CH_1018d_2010.pdf}, - urldate = {2020-05-12} -} - -@article{geelen01, - author = {Daphne Geelen and Ruth Mugge and Sacha Silvester and Annemieke Bulters}, - date = {2019}, - doi = {10.1007/s12053-019-09777-z}, - issue = {12}, - journaltitle = {Energy Efficiency}, - title = {The use of apps to promote energy saving: a study of smartmeter–related feedback in the Netherlands} -} - -@online{bmwi03, - author = {{Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie} and {Ernst and Young}}, - date = {2013}, - title = {Kosten-Nutzen-Analyse für einen flächendeckenden Einsatz intelligenter Zähler}, - url = {https://www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/DE/Publikationen/Studien/kosten-nutzen-analyse-fuer-flaechendeckenden-einsatz-intelligenterzaehler.pdf}, - urldate = {2020-05-12} -} - -@inproceedings{rodden01, - author = {Tom A. Rodden and Joel E. Fischer and Nadia Pantidi and Khaled Bachour and Stuart Moran}, - booktitle = {Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems - CHI '13}, - date = {2013}, - doi = {10.1145/2470654}, - title = {At Home with Agents: Exploring Attitudes Towards Future Smart Energy Infrastructures}, - year = {2013} -} - -@inproceedings{pierce01, - author = {James Pierce and Eric Paulos}, - booktitle = {CHI 2012}, - date = {2012}, - doi = {10.1145/2207676.2207771}, - subtitle = {interaction, energy, and emerging energy systems}, - title = {Beyond Energy Monitors: Interaction, Energy, and Emerging Energy Systems}, - year = {2012} -} - -@article{lupton01, - author = {Deborah Lupton}, - date = {2016}, - doi = {10.1080/03085147.2016.1143726}, - issn = {0308-5147}, - journaltitle = {Economy and Society}, - pages = {101–122}, - title = {The diverse domains of quantified selves: self-tracking modes and dataveillance}, - volume = {45}, - year = {2016} -} - -@inproceedings{costanza01, - author = {Enrico Costanza and Joel E. Fischer and James A. Colley and Tom Rodden and Sarvapali D. Ramchurn and Nicholas R. Jennings}, - booktitle = {CHI 2014, One of a CHInd}, - date = {2014}, - doi = {10.1145/2556288.2557167}, - subtitle = {a field trial of a future smart energy system in the home}, - title = {Doing the Laundry with Agents: a Field Trial of a Future SmartEnergy System in the Home}, - year = {2014} -} - -@article{fell01, - author = {Michael J. Fell and David Shipworth and Gesche M. Huebner and Clifford A. Elwell}, - date = {2015}, - doi = {10.1016/j.erss.2015.08.023}, - issn = {2214-6296}, - journaltitle = {Energy Research and Social Science}, - pages = {72–84}, - title = {Public acceptability of domestic demand-side response in Great Britain: The role of automation and direct load control}, - volume = {9}, - year = {2015} -} - -@online{silabs01, - author = {Vivek Mohan and {Silicon Labs}}, - date = {2015}, - title = {An Introduction to Wireless M-Bus}, - url = {http://pages.silabs.com/rs/634-SLU-379/images/introduction-to-wireless-mbus.pdf} -} - -@article{belega01, - author = {Daniel Belega and Dario Petri}, - date = {2013}, - doi = {10.1109/tim.2012.2236777}, - issn = {0018-9456}, - issue = {5}, - journaltitle = {IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement}, - pages = {942–953}, - title = {Accuracy Analysis of the Multicycle Synchrophasor Estimator Provided by the Interpolated DFT Algorithm}, - volume = {62}, - year = {2013} -} - -@article{borkowski01, - author = {Jozef Borkowski and Dariusz Kania and Janusz Mroczka}, - date = {2014}, - doi = {10.1109/tie.2014.2316225}, - issn = {0278-0046}, - issue = {12}, - journaltitle = {IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics}, - pages = {7026–7034}, - title = {Interpolated-DFT-Based Fast and Accurate Frequency Estimation for the Control of Power}, - volume = {61}, - year = {2014} -} - -@unpublished{semerow01, - author = {Anatoli Semerow and Sebastian Hohn and Matthias Luther and Walter Sattinger and Hans Abildgaard and Agustin Diaz Garcia and Giorgio Giannuzzi}, - date = {2015}, - doi = {10.1109/ptc.2015.7232578}, - institution = {{University of Erlangen-Nuremberg} and ENTSO-E}, - title = {Dynamic Study Model for the interconnected power system of Continental Europe in different simulation tools}, - year = {2015} -} - -@online{entsoe05, - author = {ENTSO-E}, - date = {2019}, - title = {ENTSO-E Initial Dynamic Model of Continental Europe}, - url = {https://www.entsoe.eu/publications/system-operations-reports/#entso-e-initial-dynamic-model-of-continental-europe}, - urldate = {2020-05-14} -} - -@inbook{brown01, - author = {Marilyn A. Brown and Shan Zhou}, - booktitle = {Advances in Energy Systems: The Large-scale Renewable Energy Integration Challenge}, - comment = {Extremely obvious industry pandering.}, - date = {2019}, - doi = {10.1002/9781119508311}, - edition = {First Ed.}, - publisher = {Wiley}, - subtitle = {The Large-scale Renewable Energy Integration Challenge}, - title = {Smart‐Grid Policies: An International Review}, - year = {2019} -} - -@online{kamstrup01-2, - author = {{Kamstrup A/S}}, - date = {2018}, - title = {STS prepayment meter}, - url = {https://www.kamstrup.com/en-en/electricity-solutions/smart-electricity-meters/sts-prepayment-meter}, - urldate = {2020-05-18} -} - -@book{sato01, - author = {Takuro Sato and Daniel M. 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